Parathyroid gland

The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck that produce parathyroid hormone. Humans have four parathyroid glands, which are usually located behind the thyroid gland, and, in rare cases, within the thyroid gland or in the chest. Parathyroid glands control the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.

Anatomy

The parathyroid glands are four or more small glands located on the posterior surface (back side) of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands are named for their proximity to the thyroid but serve a completely different role than the thyroid gland. They are quite easily recognizable from the thyroid as they have densely packed cells, in contrast with the follicle structure of the thyroid. However, at surgery, they are harder to differentiate from the thyroid or fat.

In the histological sense, they distinguish themselves from the thyroid gland, as they contain two types of cells:

History

The parathyroid glands were first discovered in the Indian Rhinoceros by Richard Owen in 1850. The glands were first discovered in humans by Ivar Viktor Sandström (1852-1889), a Swedish medical student, in 1880. It was the last major organ to be recognized in humans.

Physiology

The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain the body's calcium level within a very narrow range, so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly.

When blood calcium levels drop below a certain point, calcium-sensing receptors in the parathyroid gland are activated to release hormone into the blood.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH, also known as parathormone) is a small protein that takes part in the control of calcium and phosphate homeostasis, as well as bone physiology. Parathyroid hormone has effects antagonistic to those of calcitonin. PTH increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium. PTH also increases gastrointestinal calcium absorption by activating vitamin D, and promotes calcium uptake by the kidneys. PTH affects the perception of well being and absence of PTH can be associated with feeling of fatigue and anxiety.

Role in disease

Many conditions are associated with disorders of parathyroid function. These can be divided into those causing hyperparathyroidism, and those causing hypoparathyroidism.

Embryology and evolution

The parathyroid glands originate from the interaction of neural crest mesenchyme and third and fourth branchial pouch endoderm.

Eya-1 (transcripitonal co-activator), Six-1 (a homeobox transcription factor), and Gcm-2 (a transcription factor) have been associated with the development of the parathyroid gland, and alterations in these genes alters parathyroid gland development.

The conserved homology of genes and calcium-sensing receptors in fish gills with those in the parathryroid glands of birds and mammals is recognized by evolutionary developmental biology as evolution-using genes and gene networks in novel ways to generate new structures with some similar functions and novel functions.

The superior parathyroids arise from the fourth pharyngeal pouch, and the inferior parathyroids arise from the third pharyngeal pouch. They are vertically transposed during embyrogenesis. This is significant in function-preserving parathyroidectomy, because both the superior and the inferior parathyroids are supplied by the inferior thyroid artery. If the surgeon is to leave a single functional parathyroid for the patient, he/she must preserve the appropriate blood supply.

Translation of "Parathyroid gland"

Arabic: غدة جار درقية, Bengali: প্যারাথাইরয়েড গ্রন্থি, Czech: Příštitná tělíska, German: Nebenschilddrüse, Divehi: ޕަރަތައިރޮއިޑް ގްލޭންޑް, Spanish: Paratiroides, French: Parathyroïde, Italian: Paratiroide, Hebrew: בלוטת יותרת התריס, Croatian: Doštitna žlijezda, Latin: Glandulae parathyroidae, Lithuanian: Prieskydinė liauka, Hungarian: Mellékpajzsmirigy, Macedonian: Параштитна жлезда, Dutch: Bijschildklier, Japanese: 副甲状腺, Polish: Przytarczyce, Portuguese: Glândula paratiróide, Russian: Паращитовидные железы, Albanian: Parathormoni, Slovak: Prištítne teliesko, Slovenian: Obščitnica, Finnish: Lisäkilpirauhanen, Swedish: Bisköldkörtlar, Telugu: పారాథైరాయిడ్ గ్రంధి, Ukrainian: Прищитоподібні залози.